The Hundred Years' War: A Century of Conflict Between England and France – A Turning Point in European History

The Hundred Years' War stands as one of the most transformative conflicts in European history, fundamentally altering the political landscape of Western Europe and laying the groundwork for the modern nation-states we recognize today. Despite its name, this intermittent struggle between England and France actually lasted 116 years, from 1337 to 1453, encompassing multiple generations of rulers and soldiers. What began as a feudal dispute over territorial claims evolved into a complex, multi-faceted conflict that would reshape military tactics, strengthen national identities, and forever change the relationship between these two powerful kingdoms.

During this extended period of warfare, five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of France, then the wealthiest and most populous kingdom in Western Europe. The conflict saw remarkable military innovations, the rise and fall of chivalric ideals, devastating plagues, and the emergence of national heroes like Joan of Arc. By examining this pivotal series of conflicts, we gain crucial insights into the transition from medieval to early modern Europe and understand how warfare, politics, and society were transformed in the process.

A medieval illustration depicting a battle scene from the Hundred Years' War, showing English longbowmen facing French knights

Phases of the Hundred Years' War

Historians traditionally divide the Hundred Years' War into three distinct phases, each characterized by different political circumstances, military strategies, and key figures. These divisions help us understand the evolving nature of this lengthy conflict:

The Edwardian War (1337-1360)

Named after Edward III of England, this phase began when Philip VI of France confiscated the English-held duchy of Guyenne. Edward responded by claiming the French throne through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France. This period saw major English victories at the Battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), where English longbowmen proved devastatingly effective against French knights. The phase ended with the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360.

Edward III of England, who initiated the war by claiming the French throne

The Caroline War (1369-1389)

Named after Charles V of France, this phase began when the French king reclaimed territories ceded to England in the Treaty of Brétigny. Under Charles V's leadership and the military expertise of Bertrand du Guesclin, France adopted a strategy of avoiding pitched battles while gradually reclaiming lost territories. By the time of Charles V's death in 1380, France had regained most of its lost lands, leaving England with only Calais and parts of Gascony.

Charles V of France, who reclaimed many territories during the Caroline War

The Lancastrian War (1415-1453)

Named after the English royal house of Lancaster, this final phase began with Henry V's invasion of France and his stunning victory at Agincourt in 1415. The Treaty of Troyes (1420) recognized Henry as heir to the French throne, but his premature death in 1422 complicated matters. The emergence of Joan of Arc revitalized French resistance, leading to a series of French victories. The war concluded with French victories at Formigny (1450) and Castillon (1453), leaving England with only Calais.

Henry V of England, whose victory at Agincourt marked the beginning of the Lancastrian War

These three phases illustrate how the war evolved from an initial English offensive to a French recovery and finally to the complete expulsion of English forces from continental France (except Calais). Throughout these phases, the nature of warfare itself was transformed, with new technologies and tactics emerging that would shape European military history for centuries to come.

Causes of the Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War emerged from a complex web of political, dynastic, and economic factors that had been developing for generations. Understanding these causes helps explain why this conflict became so protracted and bitter.

Medieval map depicting the territories disputed between England and France

Dynastic Claims to the French Throne

When Charles IV of France died in 1328 without a male heir, the direct Capetian line came to an end. The French nobility, applying what would later be known as Salic law, rejected female succession and chose Philip of Valois (Philip VI) as king. However, Edward III of England had a competing claim through his mother Isabella, who was Charles IV's sister. While Edward initially accepted Philip's coronation, he later revived his claim, formally declaring himself King of France in 1340 and quartering the French fleur-de-lis with the English lions on his coat of arms.

Genealogical tree illustrating the competing claims to the French throne

The Problem of English Lands in France

Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English kings had held lands in France, creating a complicated feudal relationship where the King of England was also a vassal of the King of France for his continental possessions. By the 14th century, the English still controlled Gascony (part of Aquitaine in southwestern France), a vital region for English wine trade. The French monarchy had been systematically working to reduce English holdings in France, and in 1337, Philip VI confiscated the duchy of Guyenne, providing the immediate spark for war.

An English king paying homage to the French king for his continental possessions, illustrating the complex feudal relationship

Economic Interests and Trade

Economic factors played a crucial role in the conflict. Flanders, then part of the French kingdom, was England's primary market for wool exports. When Flemish cities rebelled against their French-allied count in the 1330s, Edward III supported them, securing vital trade routes. Control of the English Channel and access to French ports was also essential for English commerce. Additionally, Gascony was critically important to England as a source of wine imports and tax revenue.

"The war had its origin in a tangle of feudal relationships, and what might be called feudal politics, in which personal and family interest can hardly be distinguished from national interest."

— Christopher Allmand, historian

The Anglo-Scottish Alliance

France maintained a strategic alliance with Scotland (the "Auld Alliance") that dated back to 1295. This alliance created a two-front problem for England, as any English campaign in France risked a Scottish invasion from the north. Similarly, French support for Scotland threatened England's security, making the neutralization of this alliance a key English objective.

Medieval illustration depicting the signing of the Auld Alliance between France and Scotland

Key Battles and Military Innovations

The Hundred Years' War witnessed some of the most significant battles of the medieval period, many of which revolutionized military tactics and technology. These engagements not only determined the course of the war but also transformed the nature of European warfare.

Battle of Crécy (1346)

The Battle of Crécy marked a turning point in military history. On August 26, 1346, Edward III's army of around 15,000 men, including a large contingent of longbowmen, faced a much larger French force under Philip VI. The English established a defensive position on a hillside near the village of Crécy, with dismounted men-at-arms in the center and longbowmen on the flanks. The French knights, confident in their superior numbers and traditional cavalry tactics, launched a series of disorganized charges uphill against the English position.

The Battle of Crécy, where English longbowmen demonstrated their devastating effectiveness against French cavalry

The English longbowmen, capable of firing up to 12 arrows per minute with enough force to penetrate armor at 200 yards, decimated the French cavalry. By day's end, thousands of French knights and soldiers lay dead, including many prominent nobles, while English casualties were minimal. Crécy demonstrated the vulnerability of heavy cavalry to disciplined infantry and missile weapons, challenging the dominance of mounted knights on the medieval battlefield.

Battle of Poitiers (1356)

Ten years after Crécy, Edward the Black Prince (Edward III's son) led an English army of about 7,000 men that was intercepted by a larger French force under King John II near Poitiers. Once again adopting a defensive position, the English placed their archers on the flanks where they could fire into the advancing French. After several failed French assaults, the Black Prince ordered a counterattack that broke the French lines. King John II was captured along with many French nobles, dealing a devastating blow to French prestige and leadership.

The capture of King John II of France at the Battle of Poitiers, a devastating blow to French morale

Battle of Agincourt (1415)

Perhaps the most famous battle of the war, Agincourt cemented the legend of Henry V. On October 25, 1415, with his army weakened by dysentery and vastly outnumbered by French forces, Henry took up a position between two woods that protected his flanks. The battlefield was muddy from recent rains, hampering the heavily armored French knights. When the French finally attacked, they became bogged down in the mud and crowded together, making them perfect targets for English archers.

English longbowmen at the Battle of Agincourt firing at French knights struggling in the muddy terrain

The result was a stunning English victory, with French casualties estimated at 6,000-10,000 compared to only a few hundred English dead. Agincourt reinforced the tactical lessons of Crécy and Poitiers while establishing Henry V as one of England's greatest warrior kings.

Siege of Orléans (1428-1429)

The Siege of Orléans represented a crucial turning point in the war. After months of English siege operations, the situation for the French defenders seemed desperate. The arrival of Joan of Arc in April 1429 transformed the situation. Claiming divine guidance, she convinced the Dauphin (future Charles VII) to let her join the relief force. Her presence inspired the French troops, who launched a series of successful attacks on English positions. Within nine days of her arrival, the English lifted the siege, marking the beginning of a French resurgence.

Joan of Arc leading French forces at the Siege of Orléans, a turning point in the war

Battle of Castillon (1453)

The final major battle of the Hundred Years' War took place near Castillon on July 17, 1453. The French, under Jean Bureau, established a fortified artillery position. When the English force under John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, attacked, they were met with devastating cannon fire. Talbot was killed, and the English army routed. This battle is significant as the first decisive victory attributed to gunpowder weapons in European warfare, marking the beginning of a new military era.

French artillery at the Battle of Castillon firing on advancing English forces, demonstrating the growing importance of gunpowder weapons

Military Innovations

The Hundred Years' War accelerated several important military developments:

Infantry Revolution

The success of English longbowmen and dismounted men-at-arms challenged the dominance of heavy cavalry, leading to more combined-arms tactics throughout Europe.

Artillery Development

Gunpowder weapons evolved significantly during the war. Early cannon were primarily used in sieges, but by the war's end, field artillery had become decisive in battle, as demonstrated at Castillon.

Professional Armies

The war's length necessitated more permanent military structures. Charles VII's reforms in 1445 created France's first standing army, the Compagnies d'Ordonnance, ending reliance on feudal levies.

Fortification Changes

Castle design evolved to counter artillery, with lower, thicker walls and angled bastions replacing tall, thin medieval walls vulnerable to cannon fire.

Key Figures of the Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War was shaped by remarkable individuals whose leadership, courage, and strategic vision determined the course of the conflict. These key figures left an indelible mark on history and continue to fascinate us today.

Edward III of England (1312-1377)

Edward III initiated the war by claiming the French throne through his mother Isabella. A brilliant military leader, he transformed English military tactics and won major victories at Crécy and Sluys. His creation of the Order of the Garter and emphasis on chivalric ideals helped build support among the nobility for his French campaigns.

Edward, the Black Prince (1330-1376)

The eldest son of Edward III, the Black Prince earned his reputation as one of the greatest knights of his age. His victory at Poitiers in 1356, where he captured the French king, was a masterpiece of medieval tactics. As Prince of Aquitaine, he administered English territories in France until illness forced his return to England in 1371.

Henry V of England (1386-1422)

Henry V revitalized the English war effort with his stunning victory at Agincourt in 1415. His military campaigns conquered much of northern France, culminating in the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which recognized him as heir to the French throne. His premature death in 1422 prevented him from realizing his ambition of uniting the crowns of England and France.

Joan of Arc (1412-1431)

Perhaps the most extraordinary figure of the war, Joan was a peasant girl who claimed divine guidance to support the Dauphin and drive the English from France. Her arrival at the Siege of Orléans in 1429 revitalized French morale and led to a series of victories. After her capture by Burgundian allies of England, she was tried for heresy and burned at the stake. Later canonized as a saint, she remains a powerful symbol of French national identity.

Charles VII of France (1403-1461)

Initially known as the Dauphin and dismissed by his opponents as the "King of Bourges" due to his limited territory, Charles VII ultimately led France to victory. Inspired by Joan of Arc, he was crowned at Reims in 1429. His military reforms, including the creation of France's first standing army and development of artillery, proved decisive in the final phase of the war.

Bertrand du Guesclin (1320-1380)

A Breton knight who rose to become Constable of France, du Guesclin was the architect of the French recovery during the Caroline War. Recognizing French weakness in pitched battles, he adopted a strategy of avoiding major engagements while conducting smaller raids and sieges. This "Fabian strategy" gradually wore down English forces and reclaimed much of France's lost territory.

"I am not afraid... I was born to do this."

— Joan of Arc

Impact and Legacy of the Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War had profound and lasting consequences for both England and France, as well as for European society as a whole. Its effects transformed political structures, military organization, national identities, and even language and culture.

Political Transformation

France

The war accelerated the centralization of the French state. The need to raise and maintain armies led to more efficient tax collection and administration. By the war's end, the French monarchy had consolidated power over formerly semi-independent regions like Burgundy, Brittany, and Aquitaine. France emerged as a unified nation-state with stronger royal authority than ever before.

Map showing the territorial unification of France after the Hundred Years' War

England

For England, the war's outcome was more complex. The loss of continental possessions forced England to reorient itself as an island nation rather than a cross-Channel power. The financial strain of the war and the return of unemployed soldiers contributed to political instability, ultimately helping to trigger the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487). However, the conflict also strengthened Parliament's role, as kings repeatedly needed to request funding for their campaigns.

The English Parliament gained importance during the war as kings needed approval for war taxes

Military Revolution

The Hundred Years' War witnessed and accelerated fundamental changes in warfare that collectively amounted to a military revolution:

• The decline of heavily armored cavalry and the rise of infantry as the dominant battlefield force
• The development of more effective missile weapons, particularly the English longbow and later firearms
• The creation of standing armies, replacing feudal levies with professional soldiers
• The growing importance of artillery, which transformed both battlefield tactics and siege warfare
• Changes in fortification design to counter the threat of cannon

Evolution of military technology during the Hundred Years' War, from longbows to early cannon

National Identity

The prolonged conflict strengthened national consciousness in both countries:

French National Identity

The struggle against English occupation fostered a sense of French national identity that transcended regional loyalties. Figures like Joan of Arc became powerful symbols of French resistance and unity. The war also promoted the use of the French language in administration and literature, replacing Latin in many contexts and diminishing regional dialects.

English National Identity

In England, the war accelerated the adoption of English as the language of government and literature, replacing the Norman French that had dominated since 1066. By 1362, English had become the official language of law courts, and writers like Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish English as a literary language. The conflict also fostered a distinctive English identity separate from continental influences.

"The Hundred Years' War was the crucible in which the separate identities of England and France were forged."

— Anne Curry, historian

Social and Economic Impact

The war had profound effects on society and economy:

Demographic Changes

The combined effects of war, famine, and the Black Death (which struck during the conflict) devastated the population of France, with some regions losing up to half their inhabitants. England suffered less direct destruction but still experienced significant population decline due to plague and the economic disruption of the war.

Economic Transformation

The war accelerated economic changes already underway. Labor shortages following the Black Death improved the position of peasants and urban workers in both countries. The need to finance the war led to innovations in taxation and banking. Trade patterns shifted as England developed closer commercial ties with the Low Countries and the Baltic.

Medieval scene depicting tax collection and commerce during the war

Cultural Legacy

The Hundred Years' War left a rich cultural legacy that continues to influence our understanding of the medieval period:

• Literary works like Shakespeare's "Henry V" immortalized key events and figures
• Chivalric ideals were both celebrated and questioned as warfare evolved
• Artistic depictions of battles and heroes shaped national mythologies
• The war features prominently in the historical consciousness of both nations
• Joan of Arc became one of history's most enduring symbols of courage and patriotism

Scene from Shakespeare's Henry V depicting the St. Crispin's Day speech before the Battle of Agincourt

Conclusion: A Turning Point in European History

The Hundred Years' War stands as one of the defining conflicts of European history, marking the transition from the medieval to the early modern period. What began as a dynastic dispute evolved into a struggle that transformed the political map of Western Europe and revolutionized warfare. By its conclusion, the feudal world of knights and castles was giving way to a new era of nation-states, standing armies, and gunpowder weapons.

For France, victory in the war led to national unification and the emergence of a centralized monarchy that would dominate European politics for centuries. For England, the loss of continental possessions forced a reorientation toward maritime power and eventually colonial expansion. Both nations emerged with stronger national identities and more developed governmental institutions.

The Hundred Years' War accelerated Europe's transition from medieval feudalism to early modern nation-states

The military innovations of the period—the rise of infantry, the development of artillery, the creation of standing armies—would shape European warfare for centuries to come. The war demonstrated that military success increasingly depended on a state's ability to mobilize resources and maintain professional forces rather than on feudal obligations or chivalric ideals.

Perhaps most significantly, the Hundred Years' War helped forge the national consciousness of both England and France. Through shared sacrifice and struggle, the populations of these kingdoms developed a stronger sense of common identity and purpose. The legends and myths that grew around figures like Henry V and Joan of Arc became foundational elements of national culture and continue to resonate today.

As we look back across the centuries, we can see that this "century of conflict" truly was a turning point—a crucible in which modern Europe began to take shape. The political, military, and cultural developments it accelerated would ultimately lead to the Age of Exploration, the Renaissance, and the emergence of the modern world order. Few conflicts in history have had such far-reaching and enduring consequences.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long did the Hundred Years' War actually last?

Despite its name, the Hundred Years' War lasted 116 years, from 1337 to 1453. The name was coined by later historians as a convenient way to describe this extended period of intermittent conflict between England and France. The war wasn't continuous fighting but included many truces and periods of relative peace.

What was the role of the longbow in the English victories?

The English longbow was a decisive weapon in early English victories like Crécy and Agincourt. These powerful weapons could be fired rapidly (up to 12 arrows per minute) and had enough power to penetrate armor at considerable distances. English archers, who trained from childhood, could maintain a deadly hail of arrows that devastated French cavalry charges and created chaos in their ranks. The longbow gave English armies a significant tactical advantage until the French developed effective countermeasures and began using more gunpowder weapons.

Why did Joan of Arc have such a significant impact on the war?

Joan of Arc's impact was both military and psychological. Militarily, she helped break the siege of Orléans and won several important victories that enabled Charles VII to be crowned at Reims. Psychologically, her conviction that she was divinely guided to save France inspired French troops and civilians alike, revitalizing French morale at a critical moment. She became a powerful symbol of French resistance and national identity, helping to unite various factions against the English occupation. Even after her execution, her legacy continued to inspire French resistance.

What were the key treaties signed during the Hundred Years' War?

Several important treaties marked different phases of the war:

• Treaty of Brétigny (1360): Ended the first phase of the war, giving Edward III full sovereignty over an enlarged Aquitaine in exchange for renouncing his claim to the French throne.
• Treaty of Troyes (1420): Following Henry V's victories, this treaty disinherited the Dauphin (future Charles VII) and recognized Henry as the heir to the French throne through his marriage to Catherine of Valois.
• Treaty of Arras (1435): Reconciled Charles VII with the Duke of Burgundy, ending the Burgundian alliance with England and significantly weakening the English position.
• Treaty of Picquigny (1475): Though technically after the war's end, this treaty between Edward IV of England and Louis XI of France formally ended English claims to the French throne.

How did the Black Death affect the course of the war?

The Black Death, which ravaged Europe from 1347 to 1351, temporarily halted major military operations as both countries dealt with catastrophic population losses. In the longer term, the plague's demographic impact created labor shortages that improved the economic position of peasants and urban workers while reducing the pool of potential soldiers. This contributed to the development of smaller, more professional armies. The plague also strained government finances, limiting the ability of both sides to sustain prolonged campaigns and contributing to the war's intermittent nature.

Did the Hundred Years' War really create English and French national identity?

While national identities existed before the war, the conflict significantly strengthened them. The need to rally support for the war effort led both monarchies to appeal to national sentiment and emphasize distinctions between "English" and "French." In England, the war accelerated the adoption of the English language in government and literature, replacing Norman French. In France, the struggle against English occupation fostered unity among previously disparate regions. By the war's end, both countries had developed stronger senses of national consciousness that would continue to evolve in subsequent centuries.

References and Further Reading

Primary Sources

• Froissart, Jean. Chronicles. Translated by Geoffrey Brereton. Penguin Classics, 1968.
• Monstrelet, Enguerrand de. The Chronicles of Enguerrand de Monstrelet. Translated by Thomas Johnes. London, 1840.
• Christine de Pizan. The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry. Translated by Sumner Willard. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.

Secondary Sources

• Allmand, Christopher. The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c.1300-c.1450. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• Curry, Anne. The Hundred Years War. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War (4 volumes). University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990-2015.
• Rogers, Clifford J. War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy Under Edward III, 1327-1360. Boydell Press, 2000.
• Barber, Richard. Edward III and the Triumph of England. Allen Lane, 2013.

Historical books and manuscripts documenting the Hundred Years' War

Deepen Your Knowledge of Medieval History

Subscribe to our newsletter for fascinating articles, timelines, and analyses of pivotal historical events that shaped Europe. Receive exclusive content about medieval warfare, politics, and society.

Subscribe to History Newsletter

Explore Medieval Military History

Discover our curated collection of resources on medieval warfare, tactics, and military technology. From the longbow revolution to the rise of gunpowder weapons, deepen your understanding of how warfare evolved during this pivotal period.

Access Educational Resources

Join Our Community of History Enthusiasts

Subscribe to receive regular updates on European history, including in-depth articles, timelines, and analyses of pivotal historical events. Be the first to access our special content on medieval warfare, politics, and society.

Subscribe Now

Deepen Your Understanding of Medieval History

Subscribe to our newsletter for regular updates on European history, including in-depth articles, timelines, and analyses of pivotal historical events. Join our community of history enthusiasts today!

Subscribe to History Newsletter