1915 Armenian Genocide: Historical Context and International Repercussions

The 1915 Armenian Genocide represents one of the most tragic chapters in modern history, with devastating consequences that continue to reverberate through international relations and Armenian identity today. This systematic campaign of deportation and mass killing carried out against Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million Armenians. Understanding this historical trauma requires examining not only the events themselves but also their complex causes, international reactions, and lasting impact on global genocide prevention efforts.

Historical Context of the 1915 Armenian Genocide

Armenian populations in the Ottoman Empire before the 1915 genocide

Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

For centuries, Armenians lived as an ethno-religious minority within the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of the 20th century, approximately 2.5 million Armenians resided in the empire, primarily concentrated in the six provinces of Eastern Anatolia. Under the Ottoman millet system, Armenians enjoyed a degree of cultural and religious autonomy, though they were considered second-class citizens compared to the Muslim majority.

Armenians played significant roles in Ottoman society as merchants, industrialists, artists, and architects. The Armenian Patriarchate served as the religious representation for the community, while Armenians maintained their distinct cultural identity through their language and the Armenian Church, one of the world's oldest Christian institutions.

Rising Tensions in the Late 19th Century

The 19th century brought significant challenges to the Ottoman Empire as it struggled to maintain power amid European economic influence and internal reform efforts. The Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876) aimed to strengthen the state but failed to provide true equality for non-Muslim minorities. Meanwhile, Armenian cultural nationalism emerged among the intelligentsia, though most Armenians remained peasants focused on daily survival.

In Eastern Anatolia, Armenians faced increasing hardships including double taxation, persecution by Kurdish tribes, and limited legal recourse when their property was seized. These conditions led to appeals for reforms to improve the lot of Armenians, eventually resulting in the "Armenian Question" becoming internationalized after the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

"A nation was killed and the guilty persons were set free. Why is a man punished when he kills another man? Why is the killing of a million a lesser crime than the killing of a single individual?"

- Raphael Lemkin, who later coined the term "genocide"

The Hamidian Massacres and Early Violence

The deteriorating conditions for Armenians erupted into mass violence several times in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1894 and 1896, hundreds of thousands of Armenians were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres, named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II. These massacres occurred when Armenians in the Sasun region refused to pay oppressive taxes, leading to brutal retaliation by Ottoman troops and Kurdish tribesmen.

Another wave of violence occurred in 1909 with the Adana massacre, resulting in the deaths of approximately 20,000 Armenians and 2,000 Muslims. These episodes of violence created deep trauma within the Armenian community and set a precedent for the larger-scale atrocities that would follow.

Armenian refugees during the forced deportations of 1915

The Young Turks and Implementation of the 1915 Armenian Genocide

The Young Turk Revolution and Rising Nationalism

In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), part of the broader Young Turks movement, came to power in the Ottoman Empire. Initially, this revolution brought hope to Armenians and other minorities who anticipated greater equality under the new constitutional government. However, the Young Turks' vision of Ottomanism increasingly took on a distinctly Turkish nationalist character.

The Ottoman Empire's humiliating defeat in the First Balkan War (1912-1913) intensified anti-Christian sentiment, as Balkan Christians were blamed for the empire's territorial losses. The influx of Muslim refugees from lost territories created further tensions over land in Anatolia. Meanwhile, Armenian appeals for reforms in the eastern provinces were viewed by the Young Turks as evidence of collusion with European powers to undermine Ottoman sovereignty.

World War I as Catalyst

The Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I in October 1914 on the side of the Central Powers created the conditions that enabled the genocide. After a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Sarikamish in January 1915, the Young Turk leadership, particularly Enver Pasha, blamed Armenians for the military failure, accusing them of siding with Russia.

This accusation, though largely unfounded, became the pretext for portraying Armenians as a fifth column and an internal threat to the empire. While some Armenians did fight with Russian forces, the Armenian leadership in the Ottoman Empire had declared neutrality in the conflict, and most Armenian men were serving in the Ottoman army.

The triumvirate of Young Turk leaders: Talaat Pasha, Enver Pasha, and Jemal Pasha

Phases of the Genocide

The Armenian Genocide unfolded in several distinct phases. On April 24, 1915, hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople were arrested, deported, and subsequently killed. This date is now commemorated as Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, marking the beginning of the systematic destruction of the Armenian population.

The first phase targeted the Armenian population in the six eastern provinces between spring and fall of 1915. Armenian men who had been drafted into the Ottoman army were disarmed, placed in labor battalions, and eventually killed. With the community's leadership eliminated and able-bodied men removed, the remaining Armenian population—primarily women, children, and the elderly—became vulnerable to the next phase.

The second phase, between February and December 1916, targeted survivors from the first phase and the Armenian population of Cilicia. These victims were forced into concentration camps in Syria and Mesopotamia, where many died from starvation, disease, and direct killings.

Deportation routes during the Armenian Genocide showing the path to concentration camps

Methods of Destruction

The genocide employed multiple methods of destruction. Armed groups would enter Armenian villages, separate and kill able-bodied men, then order women, children, and the elderly to prepare for deportation. Though valuables were officially "registered for safekeeping," they were typically confiscated or stolen.

Deportees were forced to march hundreds of miles through harsh terrain with little food or water. These death marches were designed to cause maximum suffering, with deportees subject to attacks by marauding bands who stole remaining valuables, raped women and girls, and killed many survivors. Young girls were often abducted, and children were sometimes enslaved or raised as Muslims.

Natural elements also contributed to the death toll, with starvation, disease, and exposure claiming many lives. Those who reached the Syrian desert faced further brutality in concentration camps, where mass killings continued through 1916.

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International Reactions to the 1915 Armenian Genocide

Diplomatic Responses During the Genocide

As the Armenian Genocide unfolded, numerous foreign diplomats stationed in the Ottoman Empire documented and reported the atrocities. American Ambassador Henry Morgenthau Sr. played a particularly significant role in raising awareness about the massacres, sending detailed reports to Washington and later publishing his memoirs, which included the statement: "I am confident that the whole history of the human race contains no such horrible episode as this."

The governments of France, Great Britain, and Russia issued a joint declaration on May 24, 1915, warning the Ottoman government that they would hold all members of the Ottoman government personally responsible for the "crimes against humanity and civilization." This marked one of the first uses of the phrase "crimes against humanity" in an international context.

US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau Sr., who extensively documented the Armenian Genocide

Media Coverage and Public Awareness

The Armenian Genocide received significant coverage in the Western press. The New York Times alone published more than 145 articles about the Armenian massacres between 1915 and 1922. These reports helped raise public awareness about the atrocities and generated sympathy for the Armenian victims.

Despite this coverage, no foreign powers intervened militarily to stop the killings. The concept of humanitarian intervention, while discussed in international relations, was not applied to the Armenian case. European powers, engaged in World War I and pursuing their own strategic interests in the Middle East, did not reach the consensus necessary for intervention.

Humanitarian Relief Efforts

The most significant international response came in the form of humanitarian aid. The American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief (later renamed Near East Relief) raised over $100 million (equivalent to over $1 billion today) to help Armenian survivors. This represented the first major international humanitarian mission of the American Red Cross.

Missionary organizations also played crucial roles in providing aid and documenting the atrocities. Many American, German, and Swiss missionaries in the Ottoman Empire helped save Armenian lives by providing shelter, food, and medical care to survivors, often at great personal risk.

Near East Relief fundraising poster for Armenian survivors, circa 1919

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Aftermath and Long-term Consequences

Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage

The Armenian Genocide resulted in the near-complete erasure of Armenian presence in their historic homeland. Before 1914, there were 2,538 Armenian churches, 451 monasteries, and nearly 2,000 schools in the Ottoman Empire. Today, outside of Istanbul, Armenians possess only six churches, no monasteries, and no schools in Turkey.

The names of Armenian villages, cities, mountains, rivers, and historical sites were systematically changed to Turkish names. Ancient churches and other historic sites have been intentionally neglected or destroyed, effectively eliminating traces of the 3,000-year-old Armenian civilization from its historic lands.

Before and after: Armenian cultural heritage sites destroyed during and after the genocide

Formation of the Armenian Diaspora

The genocide created the modern Armenian diaspora, with survivors scattered across the Middle East, Europe, the Americas, and elsewhere. Major Armenian communities formed in Lebanon, Syria, France, the United States, and Argentina. These diaspora communities have maintained Armenian cultural identity, language, and traditions while advocating for genocide recognition.

Today, approximately 11 million Armenians live worldwide, with only about 3 million in the Republic of Armenia itself. The diaspora has played a crucial role in preserving Armenian culture and identity while building influential communities in their adopted countries.

Economic Impact and Property Confiscation

The Armenian Genocide was not only a physical destruction of people but also an economic one. Armenian properties, businesses, factories, and homes were systematically confiscated by the Ottoman government and later appropriated by the Turkish Republic. This mass confiscation played a significant role in the emergence of a Muslim bourgeoisie class during the early Republican period in Turkey.

The economic losses suffered by Armenians have never been properly addressed or compensated, representing one of the many unresolved aspects of the genocide's aftermath. Estimates of the value of confiscated Armenian assets range into billions of dollars in today's currency.

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International Recognition and Turkish Denial

Evolution of Genocide Recognition

The term "genocide" itself is connected to the Armenian experience. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term in 1944, was deeply influenced by the Armenian massacres. When creating the concept of genocide, he specifically cited the Armenian case as a defining historical example that informed his thinking.

International recognition of the Armenian Genocide has been a gradual process. The first country to officially recognize the genocide was Uruguay in 1965. Since then, more than 30 countries have formally acknowledged the events as genocide, including France, Germany, Russia, Canada, and most recently, the United States in 2021.

Countries that have officially recognized the Armenian Genocide as of 2023

Turkish Denial Strategies

The Turkish government has consistently denied that the events of 1915-16 constituted genocide. This denial has evolved over time but generally includes several key arguments: that the deaths were a result of civil war rather than planned extermination; that the number of Armenian deaths is exaggerated; that more Muslims died during the same period; that Armenians were traitors who sided with Russia; and that the concept of genocide did not exist at the time.

Turkey has invested significant resources in its denial campaign, including funding academic chairs at universities, lobbying governments, and supporting public relations efforts. Until 2021, this campaign was particularly focused on preventing U.S. recognition of the genocide.

"The Turkish government has refused to recognize the events of 1915–16 as genocide, claiming that the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire were rebellious and needed pacifying during a national security crisis."

Milestone: U.S. Recognition in 2021

After decades of advocacy by Armenian-Americans, on April 24, 2021, President Joe Biden formally recognized the Armenian Genocide. In his statement, he acknowledged: "Beginning on April 24, 1915, with the arrest of Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople by Ottoman authorities, one and a half million Armenians were deported, massacred, or marched to their deaths in a campaign of extermination."

This recognition represented a significant diplomatic shift, as previous U.S. administrations had avoided using the term "genocide" due to concerns about relations with Turkey, a NATO ally. The recognition was celebrated by Armenians worldwide as a long-overdue acknowledgment of historical truth.

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Impact on Armenian Diaspora Identity

Trauma and Collective Memory

The Armenian Genocide has profoundly shaped Armenian identity, particularly in the diaspora. The collective trauma has been passed down through generations, creating what scholars call "postmemory" – the relationship that the generation after bears to the personal, collective, and cultural trauma of those who came before.

For many diaspora Armenians, the genocide represents the defining moment in their history and identity formation. Family stories of survival, loss, and displacement form core narratives that connect Armenians across the globe, transcending geographical boundaries and creating a shared sense of history and purpose.

Armenian diaspora commemoration ceremony on April 24, Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day

Cultural Preservation and Revival

In response to the near-destruction of their homeland culture, diaspora Armenians have devoted significant resources to preserving Armenian language, arts, literature, and traditions. Armenian schools, churches, and cultural centers in diaspora communities serve as vital institutions for maintaining cultural continuity and identity.

The genocide experience has also inspired a rich body of literature, music, and art that explores themes of trauma, memory, justice, and resilience. Works by authors like William Saroyan, poets like Siamanto, and artists like Arshile Gorky have helped process the collective trauma while ensuring that Armenian cultural expression continues to evolve and thrive.

Political Activism and Advocacy

The quest for genocide recognition has been a unifying cause for diaspora Armenians. Advocacy organizations like the Armenian National Committee and the Armenian Assembly of America have worked for decades to advance recognition, education, and commemoration efforts.

This political activism has extended beyond genocide recognition to include support for the Republic of Armenia, humanitarian aid during conflicts, and advocacy for Armenian communities in other countries. The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, for instance, mobilized diaspora communities worldwide to provide aid and raise awareness about the situation.

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Legacy for Global Genocide Prevention

Influence on International Law

The Armenian Genocide played a crucial role in the development of international humanitarian law. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide" in 1944, explicitly cited the Armenian case as a formative influence on his thinking. The failure of the international community to hold perpetrators accountable after World War I demonstrated the need for new legal frameworks.

The concept of "crimes against humanity," first used in the 1915 Allied Powers' joint declaration regarding the Armenian massacres, later became a cornerstone of international criminal law. This evolution culminated in the 1948 UN Genocide Convention, which defined genocide as a crime under international law.

Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide" in 1944, was deeply influenced by the Armenian case

The "Never Again" Paradox

Despite the development of legal frameworks and the pledge of "Never Again" after the Holocaust, genocides have continued to occur throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The Armenian case illustrates what scholars call the "Never Again Paradox" – the gap between rhetorical commitments to prevent genocide and the political will to intervene when warning signs appear.

The pattern of denial that followed the Armenian Genocide has been repeated with other mass atrocities, highlighting how denial is not merely the absence of truth but an active process that enables future violence by obscuring historical precedents.

Educational Initiatives and Awareness

Education about the Armenian Genocide has become part of broader genocide prevention efforts. Several countries, including France, Canada, and various U.S. states, have incorporated the Armenian Genocide into their educational curricula. These initiatives aim to raise awareness about the warning signs of genocide and promote values of tolerance and human rights.

Museums and memorials dedicated to the Armenian Genocide, such as the Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute in Yerevan and the Armenian Genocide Memorial Complex (Tsitsernakaberd), serve as important educational resources and sites of remembrance that contribute to global genocide awareness.

Tsitsernakaberd Armenian Genocide Memorial Complex in Yerevan, Armenia

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Impact on Modern Armenian Foreign Policy

Relations with Turkey

The unresolved legacy of the 1915 Armenian Genocide continues to define Armenia's complicated relationship with Turkey. The two countries have no diplomatic relations, and their shared border has been closed since 1993, when Turkey sided with Azerbaijan during the first Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

Several attempts at normalization have failed, most notably the 2009 "Zurich Protocols" that would have established diplomatic relations and reopened the border. These efforts collapsed primarily due to Turkey's insistence on linking normalization to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and its continued denial of the genocide.

The closed Armenia-Turkey border with Mount Ararat (a symbol of Armenian identity) visible in Turkish territory

Security Concerns and Alliances

The historical experience of the genocide has created an acute sense of vulnerability in Armenian security thinking. This perception was reinforced by the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, in which Turkey provided significant military support to Azerbaijan against Armenian forces.

Armenia's security concerns have led it to maintain close relations with Russia, which has a military base in Armenia and is seen as a security guarantor. At the same time, Armenia has sought to diversify its security partnerships through cooperation with NATO, the European Union, and the United States.

Genocide Recognition as Diplomatic Priority

Securing international recognition of the Armenian Genocide has been a consistent foreign policy objective for the Republic of Armenia since its independence in 1991. Armenian diplomats regularly raise the issue in bilateral and multilateral forums, viewing recognition not only as a matter of historical justice but also as a security measure against potential future aggression.

The pursuit of genocide recognition has sometimes complicated Armenia's other foreign policy goals, particularly economic development and regional integration. However, successive Armenian governments have maintained that acknowledging historical truth is essential for genuine reconciliation and regional stability.

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Current Status of International Recognition

Countries Recognizing the Armenian Genocide

As of 2023, more than 30 countries have formally recognized the events of 1915-1916 as genocide. These include France, Germany, Canada, Italy, Russia, and most recently, the United States. Many of these recognitions have come through parliamentary resolutions or official statements by heads of state.

Several countries have gone further by criminalizing denial of the Armenian Genocide. France, Switzerland, Greece, Cyprus, and Slovakia have laws that make it illegal to deny the Armenian Genocide, similar to laws against Holocaust denial.

Country	Year of Recognition	Form of Recognition
Uruguay	1965	First country to officially recognize the genocide
France	2001	Parliamentary law; criminalized denial in 2016
Germany	2016	Parliamentary resolution
Russia	1995	Parliamentary resolution
United States	2021	Presidential statement
Canada	2004	Parliamentary resolution

International Organizations and Institutions

Several international organizations have also recognized the Armenian Genocide. The European Parliament first acknowledged the genocide in 1987 and has reaffirmed this position multiple times. The Council of Europe, the World Council of Churches, and the International Association of Genocide Scholars have all formally recognized the events as genocide.

The International Criminal Court, established in 2002, provides a framework for prosecuting genocide, though it cannot retroactively address the Armenian case. Nevertheless, the development of international criminal law has been significantly influenced by the Armenian experience.

Ongoing Challenges to Recognition

Despite growing international recognition, significant challenges remain. Turkey continues its denial campaign and exerts diplomatic pressure on countries considering recognition. Several major powers, including the United Kingdom, have avoided using the term "genocide" due to strategic relationships with Turkey.

The geopolitical significance of Turkey as a NATO member and its strategic location between Europe and the Middle East continues to influence the politics of genocide recognition. However, the trend toward recognition has accelerated in recent years, suggesting a gradual shift in the international consensus.

Demonstration calling for universal recognition of the Armenian Genocide

Scholarly Perspectives on the 1915 Armenian Genocide

Historical Debate and Consensus

The overwhelming majority of historians and genocide scholars consider the events of 1915-1916 to be a clear case of genocide. The International Association of Genocide Scholars unanimously passed a resolution in 1997 affirming that the Ottoman campaign against Armenians constituted genocide according to the UN definition.

Scholarly debate now focuses less on whether genocide occurred and more on questions about intent, implementation, and regional variations in how the genocide unfolded. Recent research has revealed the complex nature of the genocide, with significant regional variations depending on local officials, population dynamics, and other factors.

Scholars presenting research at an international conference on the Armenian Genocide

Theories of Causation

Scholars have proposed various explanations for the causes of the Armenian Genocide. Some emphasize religious factors, pointing to the Christian-Muslim divide. Others focus on nationalism, seeing the genocide as resulting from Turkish nationalist efforts to create an ethnically homogeneous state.

More recent scholarship has developed the concept of "imperial nationalism," suggesting that the Young Turks sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire's territorial integrity by eliminating what they perceived as the Armenian threat. This view sees the genocide as resulting from a process of "cumulative radicalization" during World War I rather than from a pre-existing blueprint.

Documentation and Evidence

The Armenian Genocide is extensively documented through multiple sources. These include Ottoman government records, diplomatic correspondence from various countries, eyewitness accounts from missionaries and foreign residents, survivor testimonies, and photographic evidence.

Particularly significant are the reports from American, German, and Austrian diplomats who, as representatives of countries allied with the Ottoman Empire during World War I, had no political motivation to exaggerate Armenian suffering. Their detailed accounts provide crucial contemporary evidence of the systematic nature of the killings.

"Conservative estimates have calculated that some 600,000 to more than 1,000,000 Armenians were killed or died during the forced marches that followed the Ottoman Parliament's formal authorization of their deportation from Eastern Anatolia."

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Memory and Commemoration

Remembrance Day and Memorials

April 24 is observed as Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, commemorating the arrest of Armenian intellectuals in Constantinople in 1915. On this day, Armenians worldwide participate in memorial events, including visits to monuments, church services, and public demonstrations calling for recognition.

The most significant memorial is the Tsitsernakaberd Memorial Complex in Yerevan, Armenia, which includes an eternal flame and a 44-meter stele symbolizing the national rebirth of Armenians. Other notable memorials exist in numerous countries with Armenian diaspora communities.

April 24 commemoration at Tsitsernakaberd Memorial Complex in Yerevan, Armenia

Cultural Expressions of Trauma

The Armenian Genocide has inspired numerous artistic and cultural expressions that process collective trauma and preserve memory. Literature by authors like Peter Balakian, Michael Arlen, and Chris Bohjalian; films such as Atom Egoyan's "Ararat"; and music by composers like Komitas have all contributed to the cultural memory of the genocide.

These cultural expressions serve multiple purposes: they document historical events, process trauma, educate new generations, and advocate for recognition and justice. They form a crucial part of what scholars call "cultural trauma" – the incorporation of devastating historical events into collective identity.

Intergenerational Transmission of Memory

The memory of the genocide continues to be transmitted across generations of Armenians. Research on the descendants of survivors has documented the phenomenon of "postmemory," where the experiences of trauma are passed down so powerfully that they seem to constitute memories in their own right.

This intergenerational transmission occurs through family stories, community commemorations, educational programs, and cultural productions. For many third and fourth-generation descendants, the genocide remains a defining aspect of their Armenian identity and motivates their involvement in recognition and justice efforts.

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Justice and Reparations Debate

Legal Frameworks and Challenges

The quest for justice for the Armenian Genocide faces significant legal challenges. The UN Genocide Convention of 1948 cannot be applied retroactively, and the Turkish Republic, established in 1923, maintains that it bears no legal responsibility for actions of the Ottoman Empire.

Nevertheless, legal scholars have explored various avenues for justice, including claims under international customary law, property restitution cases, and cultural heritage protection frameworks. These efforts face substantial obstacles but continue to evolve as international law develops.

Legal proceedings examining Armenian Genocide reparations claims

Property Restitution and Compensation Claims

Numerous legal cases have been filed seeking restitution of Armenian properties confiscated during the genocide. These include claims against insurance companies that never paid policies held by Armenian victims, banks that retained Armenian deposits, and lawsuits seeking the return of specific properties.

In 2010, the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that California Armenians could sue German insurance companies for unpaid claims from the genocide era. However, the U.S. Supreme Court later overturned this decision, citing federal preemption in foreign affairs.

Moral Reparations and Reconciliation

Beyond material compensation, many Armenians seek moral reparations in the form of acknowledgment, apology, and education. Some scholars and activists argue that genuine reconciliation between Armenians and Turks requires truth-telling as a prerequisite.

Civil society initiatives involving Turkish and Armenian participants have emerged in recent years, focusing on dialogue, shared history, and people-to-people contact. While these efforts remain limited in scope, they represent important steps toward potential reconciliation outside official government channels.

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Conclusion: The Continuing Significance of the 1915 Armenian Genocide

The Armenian Genocide represents not only a devastating historical tragedy but also a continuing moral challenge to the international community. More than a century after the events of 1915-1916, the genocide's legacy continues to shape Armenian identity, influence international relations, and inform our understanding of mass atrocities and their prevention.

For Armenians worldwide, the genocide remains a defining collective experience that unites the diaspora and the Republic of Armenia in a shared commitment to memory, recognition, and justice. The transmission of trauma across generations has created a powerful imperative to ensure that the world acknowledges what happened and works to prevent similar atrocities.

For the international community, the Armenian Genocide stands as a crucial case study in the development of human rights law and genocide prevention frameworks. The failure to adequately respond to the Armenian Genocide in its time, and the decades of denial that followed, highlight the gap between moral principles and political realities that continues to challenge genocide prevention efforts today.

As we confront contemporary mass atrocities and human rights abuses, the lessons of the Armenian Genocide remain painfully relevant. They remind us that the path from dehumanization to destruction can be swift, that bystander indifference enables perpetrators, and that denial compounds the original crime by inflicting continuing harm on survivors and their descendants.

Ultimately, the story of the Armenian Genocide is not only about destruction but also about survival and resilience. Despite the attempt to eradicate Armenian presence from their historic homeland, Armenian culture, language, and identity have endured. This resilience offers hope that truth and justice, however delayed, remain powerful forces in human affairs.

New generations of Armenians learning about their history and carrying forward the legacy of remembrance

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